The Sacred Valley of the Incas

The Sacred Valley of the Incas, in Quechua Willka Mayu or “Sacred River,” is the stretch of the upper Urubamba River valley in the Andes of southeastern Peru, running roughly from the town of Pisac in the southeast to Ollantaytambo in the northwest. The valley lies at an elevation of approximately 2,800 to 3,500 meters, between the Cusco Basin to the south and the tropical lowlands of the Amazon basin to the north, and it is one of the most fertile and climatically temperate regions of the Peruvian Andes. The Sacred Valley was the agricultural heartland of the Inca Empire and contained some of the most important royal estates of the Sapa Inca, including Pisac, Chinchero, Moray, Ollantaytambo, and a constellation of smaller sites that supported the imperial capital at Cusco. The valley was, and remains, a region of central importance to Andean society and culture, and it is one of the most visited archaeological regions of Peru.

The Sacred Valley was the focus of an extensive imperial building program, including agricultural terraces, irrigation canals, royal residences, storehouses, and ceremonial centers. The Inca invested heavily in the valley because of its strategic and economic importance: it was the agricultural breadbasket of the imperial capital, it was the principal source of maize for the imperial cult, and it was the gateway to the tropical lowlands, from which the Inca obtained coca, feathers, wood, and other tropical products. The valley was also associated with cosmology and religion: it was the home of several huacas, or sacred places, and the principal royal estates of the valley were dedicated to the cults of the Sapa Inca and of the sun.

The geography of the valley

The Sacred Valley is a long, narrow valley cut by the Urubamba River through the Andes. The valley floor lies at an elevation of approximately 2,800 to 3,500 meters, while the surrounding peaks reach elevations of more than 5,000 meters. The climate of the valley is mild and dry, with temperatures averaging between 12 and 18°C, and the valley is well watered by the Urubamba River and its tributaries. The agricultural potential of the valley is high, and the Inca developed an extensive system of terraces and irrigation canals to take advantage of it. The principal crops of the valley included maize, potatoes, quinoa, and coca, and the valley was the source of the maize that was used in the imperial cult and in the aqllakuna, the chosen women.

The valley was divided into two principal sectors: the upper Sacred Valley, which runs from Pisac to Urubamba, and the lower Sacred Valley, which runs from Urubamba to Ollantaytambo. The upper Sacred Valley is wider and more developed, with the principal imperial estates of Pisac, Chinchero, and Moray located on the plateau and on the mountain slopes above the valley. The lower Sacred Valley is narrower and more dramatic, with the principal imperial estates of Ollantaytambo and the associated agricultural terraces located on the steep slopes above the river. The two sectors are connected by the modern town of Urubamba, which is the largest settlement of the valley and a major commercial and tourist center.

Pisac

Pisac is a town and archaeological site in the upper Sacred Valley, located approximately 30 kilometers northeast of Cusco. The site includes a fortress on a mountain ridge, a sequence of agricultural terraces, a cemetery of the Inca elite, and the foundations of imperial buildings. The fortress, which includes ceremonial and defensive structures, is built on a series of platforms and overlooks the valley. The terraces, on the slopes below the fortress, are among the most extensive in the region. The cemetery, on the opposite side of the valley, contains hundreds of burials in deep crevices and caves.

The fortress of Pisac is conventionally dated to the reign of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, in the mid-fifteenth century, and it is interpreted as a royal estate and ceremonial center. The fortress includes a sequence of ceremonial buildings, including the Intihuatana (a carved stone associated with the sun), the Torreón (a tower of polygonal masonry), and the Q’allasuyu (a ceremonial plaza). The fortress is also associated with a sophisticated system of walls and gates that controlled access to the upper terraces and the ceremonial precinct. The fortress was used as a stronghold by the Inca during the resistance to the Spanish, and it was burned and abandoned in the early colonial period.

The agricultural terraces of Pisac, on the slopes below the fortress, are among the most extensive in the Sacred Valley. The terraces are built in a sequence of more than 30 levels, and they produce maize, potatoes, quinoa, and other crops. The terraces are still in use today and are a major element of the agricultural landscape of the valley. The terraces are integrated with an irrigation system that brings water from springs in the upper mountains, and the system is still functioning in many places. The Pisac site is recognized as a national cultural treasure of Peru and is one of the most visited archaeological sites in the Sacred Valley.

Chinchero

Chinchero is a town and archaeological site on the plateau above the Sacred Valley, located approximately 25 kilometers northwest of Cusco at an elevation of approximately 3,750 meters. The site includes a large Inca town, a colonial church built on Inca foundations, and an extensive system of agricultural terraces. The colonial church, dedicated to the Nativity of Our Lady, was built on the foundations of an Inca building and contains some of the largest known Inca polygonal stones in the region.

The site of Chinchero is conventionally interpreted as a royal estate of Túpac Inca Yupanqui, the tenth Sapa Inca, although some scholars have argued that the site is older, perhaps associated with the reign of Pachacuti. The site includes a sequence of ceremonial buildings, including a Kanchay or sacred precinct, and a series of agricultural terraces. The terraces are still in use and produce potatoes, quinoa, and other high-altitude crops. The site is also associated with an extensive system of irrigation canals that bring water from the surrounding mountains, and the canals are still functioning in many places.

The colonial church at Chinchero is built on Inca foundations, and the foundations contain some of the largest polygonal stones in the Sacred Valley. The colonial authorities incorporated the Inca walls into the foundations of the church, and the result is a hybrid building in which the imperial masonry is visible in the lower courses of the walls. The church is recognized as a national cultural treasure of Peru and is one of the most visited colonial churches in the Sacred Valley.

Moray

Moray is a unique archaeological site in the Sacred Valley, located approximately 7 kilometers west of the town of Maras and 50 kilometers northwest of Cusco. The site consists of four circular depressions, each of which contains concentric circular terraces. The depressions are natural, but the Inca built the circular terraces to a depth of more than 30 meters in the largest case. The temperature difference between the top and bottom of the largest depression can be as much as 4–5°C, and the various terraces create a range of microclimates.

The site is interpreted as an agricultural laboratory, in which the Inca experimented with the cultivation of different crops at different altitudes and in different microclimates. The site has been the subject of intensive study since the 1930s, when the Peruvian archaeologist Luis Valcárcel first described it. The studies have shown that the terraces were used to grow a wide range of crops, including maize, potatoes, quinoa, and other Andean staples, and that the site was used to develop new varieties of crops and to test their adaptation to different microclimates. The site is also associated with a sophisticated irrigation system that brings water from the surrounding mountains, and the system is still functioning in many places.

The depressions of Moray are believed to have been formed by natural processes, including the collapse of underground caves and the erosion of the plateau. The Inca recognized the unique microclimates created by the depressions and built the circular terraces to take advantage of them. The terraces are built of polygonal masonry, with the characteristic half-buried floors of the imperial canon, and they are integrated with a sophisticated drainage system that prevents the terraces from being flooded during the rainy season. The site is recognized as a national cultural treasure of Peru and is one of the most visited archaeological sites in the Sacred Valley.

Ollantaytambo and the lower valley

Ollantaytambo is a town and archaeological site in the lower Sacred Valley, located approximately 60 kilometers northwest of Cusco. The site is a complex of ceremonial and defensive buildings built on a steep ridge and a series of agricultural terraces on the valley floor. The town is one of the few Inca settlements that have been continuously inhabited since the imperial period; the lower town retains its original Inca street plan and is recognized as a National Historic Landmark of Peru.

The site of Ollantaytambo is conventionally dated to the reign of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, who used the site as a royal estate and as a center for the administration of the lower Sacred Valley. The principal buildings on the upper terrace include the Temple of the Sun, a series of structures built with large polygonal blocks, and the unfinished ceremonial buildings on the ñusta hill. The six monoliths of the Sun Temple, each weighing approximately 50 tons, were quarried from the mountainside above the site and hauled several kilometers to their current position. The transport of these stones, and the construction of the upper terraces, was abandoned before the complex was completed, possibly because of the civil war of 1529–1532 or the Spanish conquest of 1532.

The lower town of Ollantaytambo preserves the original Inca street plan, with long, narrow residential blocks organized around internal courtyards. The orientation of the buildings follows astronomical alignments, including the rising of the Pleiades, and the site includes an ushnu, a ceremonial platform, on the upper terrace. The town is also associated with a sophisticated system of irrigation canals and agricultural terraces, and the system is still in use today. The site of Ollantaytambo is recognized as a national cultural treasure of Peru and is one of the most visited archaeological sites in the Sacred Valley.

The royal estates and the imperial cult

The Sacred Valley was the home of the principal royal estates of the Inca, and the imperial cult was closely tied to the valley. The royal estates, including Pisac, Chinchero, Moray, and Ollantaytambo, were used as summer residences by the Sapa Inca, as centers for the imperial cult, and as sites for the storage and redistribution of agricultural products. The royal estates were administered by the panaca, the royal lineage cult, and the panaca maintained the mallquis, the mummified remains of deceased emperors, in dedicated shrines within the estates.

The imperial cult of the Sacred Valley was closely tied to the cult of the sun, and the principal temples of the valley, including the Temple of the Sun at Ollantaytambo, were dedicated to Inti, the sun god. The cult was also associated with the cult of the Pachamama, the earth mother, and the cult of the Apus, the mountain spirits, and many of the imperial estates of the valley include shrines dedicated to these deities. The valley was also associated with the cult of fertility, and the agricultural terraces of the valley were used in rituals associated with the planting and harvest of maize.

The imperial administration of the Sacred Valley was organized through the mit’a system, the rotating corvée labor by which communities provided workers to the state in exchange for the protection of the Inca and the right to participate in the imperial cult. The labor of the mit’a was used to build and maintain the agricultural terraces, the irrigation canals, the royal estates, and the roads of the valley. The state took a share of agricultural production as a tax, stored it in the qollqas of the valley, and distributed it to the population in years of poor harvest. The administration of the valley was one of the most important tasks of the imperial bureaucracy, and the valley was a key element of the imperial state.